Surroundings Surroundings A History of Environments and Environmentalisms Etienne S. Benson The University of Chicago Press Chicago & London The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 2020 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission, except in the case of brief quotations in critical articles and reviews. For more information, contact the University of Chicago Press, 1427 E. 60th St., Chicago, IL 60637. Published 2020 Printed in the United States of America 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 1 2 3 4 5 ISBN- 13: 978- 0- 226- 70615- 3 (cloth) ISBN- 13: 978- 0- 226- 70629- 0 (paper) ISBN- 13: 978- 0- 226- 70632- 0 (e- book) DOI: https:// doi .org/ 10 .7208 /chicago /9780226706320 .001 .0001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Benson, Etienne, 1976– author. Title: Surroundings : a history of environments and environmentalisms / Etienne S. Benson. Description: Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019042712 | ISBN 9780226706153 (cloth) | ISBN 9780226706290 (paperback) | ISBN 9780226706320 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Environmentalism—History. | Environmentalism—United States—History. Classification: LCC GE195.B4638 2020 | DDC 363.700973—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019042712 ♾ This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48- 1992 (Permanence of Paper). C o n t e n t s Introduction: What Was an Environment? 1 1 · The World in the Museum: Natural History and the Invention of Organisms and Environments in Post- Revolutionary Paris 17 2 · Environments of Empire: Disease, Race, and Statistics in the British Caribbean 48 3 · The Urban Milieu: Evolutionary Theory and Social Reform in Progressive Chicago 78 4 · The Biosphere as Battlefield: Strategic Materials and Systems Theories in a World at War 106 5 · The Evolution of Risk: Toxicology, Consumption, and the US Environmental Movement 135 6 · The Human Planet: Globalization, Climate Change, and the Future of Civilization on Earth 163 Conclusion: What Might the Environment Become? 193 Acknowledgments 215 Notes 221 Index 269 I n t r o d u c t i o n What Was an Environment? Although there is a sense in which the environment has always surrounded us, these days it somehow manages to seem more ubiquitous than ever. On the largest of scales, climate scientists warn us of the consequences of greenhouse gas emissions for our global environment, while planetary scientists, aerospace entrepreneurs, and writers of speculative fiction imagine what would be re- quired for us to flourish in the harsh environment of space or on the surface of other planets. Back on Earth, conservation biologists and the administrators of national parks and other protected areas manage the environments of en- dangered species and ecosystems across vast swaths of land and water, while people whose lives depend on forests and fisheries worry about the continental and oceanic environments that sustain those resources. In cities and other heavily settled areas, public health experts and card-c arrying “environmen- talists” seek to reduce air and water pollution and other ambient risks. Mean- while, health and safety specialists provide guidance for creating the most supportive and productive environments possible within homes, schools, and workplaces. We even carry our own environments around with us: biologists claim that what the French physiologist Claude Bernard dubbed our milieu intérieur in the mid- nineteenth century is vital not only to the functioning of our own cells and organs but also to the survival of bacteria and other non- human members of our microbiome, which in turn help us regulate our re- lationship to our surroundings.1 In that respect, we are environments just as much as we are in environments; we both surround and are surrounded. If the environment seems to be waiting for us wherever we go, so does en- vironmentalism, even if we limit ourselves to looking only for what one might 2 Introduction call the “official” environmentalism of laws, regulations, treaties, government agencies, and nongovernmental organizations. Since the 1970s, environmental agencies and ministries have become fixtures of many national, regional, and municipal governments, while international environmental treaties have con- tinued to grow in their coverage and complexity, even in the face of vigorous opposition. Beyond the legislative and diplomatic domains, new nongovern- mental environmental organizations emerge on a regular basis, each competing with the others to inspire action, raise funds, and influence policies that will minimize or at least manage the harmful effects of human activities on the natural world and human health. In the private sector, advocates of corporate social responsibility argue that environmental and financial aims can be har- monized. In 2018, for example, the Starbucks coffee chain— the world’s larg- est, with more than 27,000 stores— announced its Greener Stores initiative, which aimed to set “a new standard for green retail.”2 Meanwhile, in academia, environmental studies programs established decades ago are being revitalized alongside new programs in the environmental humanities. Regardless of our involvement with or even support of official environ- mentalism, environmental concerns also shape the mundane details of our everyday lives. Many of us haul our recycling to the curbside in an attempt to compensate for a culture of disposability, or simply because we are legally required to, while the most motivated among us purchase carbon offsets to mitigate the impact of our air travel on the global climate. The design of the automobiles we drive— just like those of the buses, trains, and airplanes we ride— has been shaped by environmental legislation that seeks to conserve resources and minimize pollution through fuel efficiency standards and emis- sions tests. When we check into hotel rooms, we are offered the opportunity to help save the environment by reusing bath towels and declining housecleaning services, while in public restrooms we encounter paperless hand dryers and low- flow toilets accompanied by self- congratulatory environmental signage. The office buildings in which we work and the coffee we drink at our desks both come with green certifications. Those of us who make our living by hunt- ing, fishing, or farming— or who seek out such activities in our leisure time— must often navigate thickets of environmental regulations before we can fire a gun, bait a hook, or plant a seed. To the extent that our identities are shaped by the material worlds we encounter on a daily basis, it seems we are all envi- ronmentalists now, whether we want to be or not. At the same time, both the environment as a material reality and environ- mentalism as a social movement seem increasingly troubled. Even as some What Was an Environment? 3 environmental problems are solved, the severity of others continues to mount. On the positive side of the balance, populations of some of the world’s most iconic endangered species, including the bald eagle and the giant panda, are on the rebound, while rivers in many places are cleaner than they have been in decades. The use of certain kinds of toxic chemicals— including the bête noire of the environmental movement of the 1960s and ’70s, the pesticide DDT— has been restricted to only the most urgent applications or eliminated entirely. The depletion of stratospheric ozone, which threatened to heighten human skin cancer rates by increasing the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth’s surface, has been largely reversed. Take a step back, however, and such successes can seem like islands in a rising sea of environmental harms and haz- ards. Even as a few species recover, a few rivers grow cleaner, and a few toxic chemicals are banned, biodiversity continues to plummet globally, climate change accelerates, and microplastics, endocrine disruptors, and other new forms of life- threatening contamination of our shared surroundings continue to proliferate. As China, India, and other developing economies industrialize, moreover, some of the forms of air and water pollution that environmentalists in the developed world believed they had conquered decades ago are reemerg- ing on a vastly larger scale. In part because of this mixed record, environmentalism as a social move- ment has also come under fire. Although it is difficult to find anyone, regard- less of where they stand on the political spectrum, who is opposed to a sound and healthy environment, there is little consensus over what that means or how to attain it. Surveying the state of environmentalism in 2008, the historian and activist Jenny Price described it as “a grab-b ag of available causes and rhetorics old and new,” including some she deemed to be of questionable value.3 However inspiring environmentalism may have been in the early days of Rachel Carson and her fight against “biocides” such as DDT, Price and others have argued, the movement’s apocalyptic imagination, precautionary pessimism, pervasive bureaucratization, and repeated failures to prioritize eq- uity and justice have weakened its ability to improve urban health, mitigate climate change, or respond to a range of other environmental threats. Even environmentalists of a less critical bent sometimes sink into pessimism, argu- ing that although the fight to save the environment was and is a noble one, it is time to admit that the battle has been lost and to begin adjusting to a new and diminished world. Meanwhile, critics from both the left and the right have characterized environmentalism (not without justification) as an effort to shift the burdens of development or the costs of quality of life from some people