Capitalizing on Language Learners’ Individuality SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Series Editor: Professor David Singleton, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland This series brings together titles dealing with a variety of aspects of language acquisition and processing in situations where a language or languages other than the native language is involved. Second language is thus interpreted in its broadest possible sense. The volumes included in the series all offer in their different ways, on the one hand, exposition and discussion of empirical findings and, on the other, some degree of theoretical reflection. In this latter connection, no particular theoretical stance is privileged in the series; nor is any relevant perspective – sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic etc. – deemed out of place. The intended readership of the series includes final-year undergraduates working on second language acquisition projects, postgraduate students involved in second language acquisition research, and researchers and teachers in general whose interests include a second language acquisition component. Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.multilingual-matters.com, or by writing to Multilingual Matters, St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. Capitalizing on Language Learners’ Individuality From Premise to Practice Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre MULTILINGUAL MATTERS Bristol • Buffalo • Toronto Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Gregersen, Tammy, author. Capitalizing on Language Learners’ Individuality: From Premise to Practice/Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre. Second Language Acquisition: 72 Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Language and languages—Study and teaching. 2. Second language acquisition. 3. Individualized education programs. 4. Individualized instruction. I. MacIntyre, Peter D. – author. II. Title. III. Series: Second language acquisition; 72. P53.G678 2013 418.0071–dc23 2013032426 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN-13: 978-1-78309-120-1 (hbk) ISBN-13: 978-1-78309-119-5 (pbk) Multilingual Matters UK: St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA. Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada. Copyright © 2014 Tammy Gregersen and Peter D. MacIntyre. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable for- ests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, prefer- ence is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned. Typeset by Techset Composition India (P) Ltd., Bangalore and Chennai, India. Printed and bound in Great Britain by the CPI Group Ltd. To Mi Vida, Mario: Gracias a la vida… Gracias a la Vida que me ha dado tanto me ha dado el sonido y el abedecedario Con el las palabras que pienso y declaro madre amigo hermano y luz alumbrando, La ruta del alma del que estoy amando. Gracias a la Vida que me ha dado tanto me ha dado la marcha de mis pies cansados con ellos anduve ciudades y charcos, playas y desiertos montañas y llanos y la casa tuya, tu calle y tu patio. And to my children, Reycito, Margie and the Abinator: Gracias a la Vida que me ha dado tanto me ha dado la risa y me ha dado el llanto, así yo distingo dicha de quebranto los dos materiales que forman mi canto y el canto de ustedes que es el mismo canto y el canto de todos que es mi propio canto. I'd like to dedicate this work to my wife Anne, Woman I can hardly express My mixed emotions at my thoughtlessness After all I’m forever in your debt And woman I will try to express My inner feelings and thankfulness For showing me the meaning of success – John Lennon, Woman Also to my children Valerie and Robert When the waves roll on over the waters And the ocean cries We look to our sons and daughters To explain our lives As if a child could tell us why That as sure as the sunrise As sure as the sea As sure as the wind in the trees We rise again in the faces of our children We rise again in the voices of our song We rise again in the waves out on the ocean And then we rise again – Leon Dubinsky, Rise Again Contents Foreword ix Introduction xiii 1 Anxiety 1 From Premise … Exploring Foreign Language Anxiety, Its Origins and Its Significance 3 Capitalizing on Anxiety: An Action Plan 10 … To Practice Anxiety Activities 13 2 Beliefs 32 From Premise … Exploring Beliefs, Their Origins and Their Significance 33 Capitalizing on Beliefs: An Action Plan 35 … To Practice Beliefs Activities 43 3 Cognitive Abilities: Aptitude, Working Memory and Multiple Intelligences 64 From Premise … Exploring Cognitive Abilities, Their Origins and Their Significance 65 Exploring Aptitude 66 Capitalizing on Aptitude: An Action Plan 69 Exploring Working Memory (WM) 71 Capitalizing on WM: An Action Plan 72 Exploring Multiple Intelligences (MIs) 74 Capitalizing on MIs: An Action Plan 76 … To Practice Cognitive Abilities Activities 79 vii viii Capitalizing on Language Learners‘ Individuality 4 Motivation 107 From Premise … Exploring Motivation, Its Origins and Its Significance 108 Capitalizing on Motivation: An Action Plan 114 … To Practice Motivation Activities 118 5 Language Learning Strategies 146 From Premise … Exploring Language Learning Strategies, Their Origins and Their Significance 147 Capitalizing on Language Learning Strategies: An Action Plan 152 … To Practice Strategy Activities 155 6 Language Learning Styles 174 From Premise … Exploring Language Learning Styles, Their Origins and Their Significance 175 Categorizing Language Learning Styles 176 Capitalizing on Language Learning Styles: An Action Plan 179 … To Practice Language Learning Styles Activities 183 7 Willingness to Communicate 211 From Premise … Exploring WTC, Its Origin and Its Significance 212 Capitalizing on WTC: An Action Plan 216 … To Practice WTC Activities 223 Epilogue 240 References 245 Index 256 Foreword This volume offers a double-barrelled approach to understanding individual- ity in language learning by focusing on both the ‘premise’ and the ‘practice’ of individual differences as related to language learners. The premise section of each chapter offers theory and research about a given individual difference variable, such as learning strategies or motivation, and explains that area’s importance or utility for language learning and teaching. In contrast, the practice section of each chapter provides hands-on activities related to that particular individual difference. We might think of these two sections of each chapter as the parts of a tree. The premise section comprises the roots and the trunk of the tree. The practice section constitutes the tree’s crown, which, in turn, is made up of leaves and branches that reach out into the surrounding environment. Figure 1 shows the parts of a tree and indicates how the premise and the practice sections relate to those parts. If one part is missing, the tree is not complete. A full-grown tree or even a tree on its way to full maturity cannot live and thrive without all of its parts. Similarly, any discussion of an individual difference variable is likely to have insufficient health and liveliness if the premise (i.e. the theory and research combined with comments about importance) is considered by itself, without any practical aspects, implications or outreach into the classroom. Figure 1 Premise to practice tree metaphor ix x Capitalizing on Language Learners‘ Individuality Moreover, the practical aspects cannot stand on their own without a suffi- cient base of theory and research. These statements are reminiscent of the old saying, ‘Theory without practice is futile, and practice without theory is fatal.’ But as the title of this volume suggests, we must also consider the tree as a whole. Language learners are individuals and their ‘differences’ or characteristics permeate their experience and approaches in learning a second language. Individual difference research originated from the interest of researchers and teachers to explain why some learners were more success- ful than others. Contemporary research in individual differences, as this volume maintains, seeks to understand the individual experience of each language learner. This book systematically looks at the premise and the practice within seven individual difference areas – anxiety, beliefs, cognitive abilities, motiva- tion, learning strategies, learning styles, and willingness to communicate – that are of tremendous importance to language learning and teaching. In this way, the tree of individuality not only survives but thrives. Let us pursue the tree metaphor still further. In the psychology of lan- guage learning, individual differences are typically understood as contrasts between or among people with respect to phenomena such as motivation, anxiety and learning styles. However, to understand how people differ in terms of psychological variables, it is essential to understand the ‘inner work- ings’ of these variables within a given person. In other words, we need to grasp not only interpersonal differences (differences among a group of people) but also intrapersonal dynamics (how the phenomena actually operate inside someone). Looking only at the differences between or among people is like observing just the outer aspects of the tree. Examining the inner workings or intrapersonal dynamics of a given phenomenon within a person goes fur- ther, like moving beneath the bark of the tree trunk or peering inside the leaves. Both of these views are important. Please keep the tree metaphor in the back of your mind as you read and cherish this valuable book. Rather than reiterating the information in the books’ introduction, we would like to share some of the most notable aspects of the book. One of these is the creative, story-based way that the premise sections open them- selves to the reader. For instance, the premise of the anxiety chapter opens with a short paragraph about debilitating anxiety but then immediately moves to a story – a parable – about a water bearer and his load. The premise of the beliefs chapter contains a story about a wealthy father taking his son on a trip to see how the poor live, but the son interprets the findings entirely differently from the father because of differences in their beliefs. In the cog- nitive abilities chapter, the opening of the premise sparkles with the stories of Charles Darwin, Albert Einstein and August Rodin, all of whom were considered cognitively deficient by those around them. The premise of the motivation chapter touches on the story of Sir Edmund Hillary, the first person to reach the summit of Mount Everest; consider how strong his Foreword xi motivation must have been. The parable of the donkey falling into a well introduces the premise section of the learning strategies chapter. A boy and a butterfly populate a story that highlights the premise of the learning styles chapter. Two paradoxes, one about Taeko and the other about John, both students, open the premise of the chapter on willingness to communicate. These stories, while very different in content, have some general character- istics in common. First, they are intriguing. Second, they are accessible and relevant, bringing us face to face with the phenomenon being discussed. Third, they offer a painless way to enter a particular area of individual dif- ferences. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, they demonstrate that indi- vidual differences and learning are not isolated phenomena but aspects of a total human being and his or her life history. Another notable aspect of the book is the richness of the activities in the practice section of any given chapter. Let us take, for example, the chapter on willingness to communicate (Chapter 7). The practice activities in Chapter 7 include the focused essay technique. A modification mentioned by the authors is to put the essay into a Wiki document to which learners can con- tribute. A second activity concerns exploring driving and restraining forces that influence willingness to communicate (WTC). This is done through a beautiful sequence of events for students: keeping a daily list in language diaries, analyzing the data in a table, summarizing main driving and restrain- ing forces in sentences, randomly receiving summary sentences of others and giving feedback, receiving one’s own sentences with feedback from others, and then having a debriefing. Modifications are given for emergent learners and for the uses of different technologies, such as mobile hand-held electronic recording devices for oral practice, electronic journals for written practice, and discussion boards. A third WTC activity focuses on past experiences to increase perceived competence. That activity contains seven steps from pur- posing to debriefing, with two technology-related modifications. The fourth WTC activity concerns ‘if-then’ scenarios that can convert intentions into actions. Not only are there seven useful steps, but there are also modifica- tions for emergent learners, large groups, and different types of technology. These are just four of the ten activities for this chapter. Imagine the richness and plentitude of activities such as these, which are found not only in this chapter but are spread across all seven individual-difference chapters in the volume. In our experience, language teachers value the concept of meeting the needs of all learners, but the realities of modern classrooms make that objective truly challenging. This volume offers teachers concrete and realistic ideas to help them embrace their students’ individuality. A remarkable feature of this book has already been intimated: the inten- tional way that the book caters to a wide range of learners and their teachers. The activities can be used by emergent learners (pre-beginners), as well as by beginning, intermediate, and advanced learners. They can also be employed by those who have access to high-level technology and those who do not.