JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= Bistatic Radar i JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= Bistatic Radar: Emerging Technology Editedby MikhailCherniakov UniversityofBirmingham,UK Authors: AntonioMoccia MarcoD’Errico AlbertoMoreira GerhardKrieger PascaleDubois-Fernandez HubertCantalloube BernardVaizan MikhailCherniakov TaoZeng PaulHowland HughGriffiths ChrisBaker JohnSahr iii JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= Copyright(cid:2)C 2008 JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester, WestSussexPO198SQ,England Telephone(+44)1243779777 Email(forordersandcustomerserviceenquiries):[email protected] VisitourHomePageon www.wileyeurope.comorwww.wiley.com AllRightsReserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinany formorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanningorotherwise,exceptunderthe termsoftheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988orunderthetermsofalicenceissuedbytheCopyright LicensingAgencyLtd,90TottenhamCourtRoad,LondonW1P4LP,UK,withoutthepermissioninwritingofthe Publisher.RequeststothePublishershouldbeaddressedtothePermissionsDepartment,JohnWiley&SonsLtd, TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussexPO198SQ,England,[email protected],or faxedto(+44)1243770620. 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Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-0-470-02631-1(cloth) 1. Bistaticradar. I. Title. TK6592.B57C532008 621.3848–dc22 2007044549 BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN978-0-470-02631-1 Typesetin10/12ptTimesbyAptaraInc.,NewDelhi,India PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyAntonyRoweLtd,Chippenham,Wiltshire Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaperresponsiblymanufacturedfromsustainableforestry inwhichatleasttwotreesareplantedforeachoneusedforpaperproduction. iv JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= Contents ListofContributors xi Preface xiii 1 FundamentalsofBistaticSyntheticApertureRadar 1 AntonioMoccia 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 BSARBasicGeometryandResolutions 2 1.3 ScientificApplicationsoftheBSAR 8 1.3.1 EvaluationoftheBRCSofNaturalandManmadeTargetsby MeansofMultiangleBistaticSARObservations 8 1.3.2 AcquisitionofTerrainElevationandSlopebyMeansofRange andBistaticScatteringMeasurements 9 1.3.3 AcquisitionofVelocityMeasurementsDuetotheSimultaneous MeasurementofTwoDopplerFrequencies 10 1.3.4 StereoradargrammetricApplicationsDuetotheLargeAntenna SeparationInvolved 10 1.3.5 ImprovementofImageClassificationandPatternRecognitionProcedures 11 1.3.6 High-ResolutionMeasurementsofComponentsofSea-WaveSpectra 11 1.3.7 BistaticSARDataProcessing 12 1.3.8 PositionandVelocityMeasurements 13 1.3.9 BistaticStereoradargrammetry 15 1.4 Summary 20 Abbreviations 21 Variables 21 References 22 2 SpaceborneBistaticSyntheticApertureRadar 27 AntonioMocciaandMarcoD’Errico 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 KeyDesignIssuesinSpaceborneBSAR 29 2.2.1 BasicTrade-offsinSpaceborneBSARConfigurations 29 2.2.2 ImpactofBistaticObservationonMissionandSystemDesign 32 v JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= • vi CONTENTS 2.2.3 Payload–BusPerformanceTrade-off 35 2.2.4 BSARMissionsFunctional/TechnologicalKeyIssues 40 2.3 MissionAnalysisofSpaceborneBSAR 42 2.3.1 BSAROrbitDesign 42 2.3.2 BSARAttitudeandAntennaPointingDesign 49 2.4 Summary 60 Abbreviations 60 Variables 60 References 62 3 BistaticSARforEarthObservation 67 A.MocciaandM.D’Errico 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 BissatScientificRationaleandTechnicalApproach 68 3.3 BistaticPayloadMainCharacteristicsandArchitecture 70 3.3.1 DesignAssumptions 70 3.3.2 SystemArchitecture 70 3.3.3 PayloadOperationalModes 71 3.3.4 SignalSynchronization 72 3.3.5 ScienceDataHandlingandTelecommunication 73 3.3.6 AntennaCharacteristics 75 3.3.7 OverallBudgets 75 3.4 OrbitDesign 76 3.5 AttitudeDesignandRadarPointingDesign 78 3.6 RadarPerformance 86 3.7 Summary 91 Abbreviations 91 Variables 92 Acknowledgements 92 References 92 4 SpaceborneInterferometricandMultistaticSARSystems 95 GerhardKriegerandAlbertoMoreira 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 SpaceborneSARInterferometry 97 4.3 InterferometricMissionDesign 101 4.3.1 SatelliteFormation 101 4.3.2 PhaseandTimeSynchronization 106 4.3.3 OperationalModesforBi-andMultistaticSARSystems 112 4.4 MissionExamples 115 4.4.1 TanDEM-X 115 4.4.2 Semi-activeTerraSAR-LCartwheelConfiguration 128 4.5 AdvancedMultistaticSARSystemConcepts 137 4.5.1 SARTomography 137 4.5.2 AmbiguitySuppressionandResolutionEnhancement 139 4.5.3 MultistaticSARImaging 142 JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= • CONTENTS vii 4.5.4 Along-TrackInterferometryandMovingObjectIndication 143 4.5.5 MultibaselineChangeDetection 144 4.6 Discussion 145 Abbreviations 147 Variables 148 References 150 5 AirborneBistaticSyntheticApertureRadar 159 PascaleDubois-Fernandez,HubertCantalloube,BernardVaizan, GerhardKriegerandAlbertoMoreira 5.1 BistaticAirborneSARObjectives 159 5.2 AirborneBistaticSARConfigurations 160 5.2.1 Time-InvariantConfigurations 161 5.2.2 GeneralBistaticConfigurations 162 5.2.3 MTIApplications 163 5.2.4 ExamplesofResolutionPerformances 163 5.3 AirborneBistaticSARProcessingSpecificity 166 5.3.1 ChangesintheSARSynthesisProcess 166 5.3.2 MotionCompensationIssues 177 5.3.3 GeometricalDistortionModelforAirborneBistaticSARImages 185 5.3.4 MiscellaneousProcessingIssues 188 5.4 Open-LiteratureBSARAirborneCampaigns 197 5.4.1 MichiganBSARExperiment 197 5.4.2 QinetiQBSARExperiment 198 5.4.3 FGANBSARExperiment 198 5.5 TheONERA-DLRBistaticAirborneSARCampaign 198 5.5.1 PreparingtheSystems 199 5.5.2 TheCampaign 205 5.5.3 ProcessingtheBistaticImages 206 5.5.4 CalibrationoftheBistaticImages 207 5.6 ASelectionofResultsfromtheCampaign 208 5.6.1 Quasi-MonostaticversusMonostatic 208 5.7 Summary 210 Abbreviations 210 VariablesUsedinSection5.3 210 References 211 6 Space-SurfaceBistaticSAR 215 MikhailCherniakovandTaoZeng 6.1 SystemOverview 215 6.2 SpatialResolution 217 6.2.1 MonostaticSARAmbiguityFunction 218 6.2.2 ResolutioninBSAR 223 6.3 SS-BSARResolution 228 6.3.1 SS-BSARAmbiguityFunction 228 6.4 SS-BSARResolutionExamples 237 JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= • viii CONTENTS 6.5 Summary 243 Abbreviations 243 Variables 243 Acknowledgement 245 References 245 7 PassiveBistaticRadarSystems 247 PaulE.Howland,HughD.GriffithsandChrisJ.Baker 7.1 PBRDevelopment 248 7.2 SensitivityandCoverageforPassiveRadarSystems 251 7.2.1 TheBistaticRadarEquation 251 7.2.2 TargetBistaticRadarCross-Section 253 7.2.3 ReceiverNoiseFigure 254 7.2.4 EffectiveBandwidthandIntegrationGain 255 7.2.5 PerformancePrediction 256 7.2.6 SensitivityAnalysisConclusions 260 7.3 PBRSystemProcessing 260 7.3.1 NarrowbandPBRProcessing 260 7.3.2 WidebandPBRProcessing 268 7.3.3 MultistaticPBR 273 7.4 WaveformProperties 274 7.4.1 Introduction 274 7.4.2 RangeandDopplerResolution–‘Self-Ambiguity’ 275 7.4.3 RangeandDopplerResolution–‘BistaticandMultistatic Ambiguity’ 283 7.4.4 InfluenceofWaveformPropertiesonDesignandPerformance 285 7.4.5 ConclusionsofWaveformProperties 287 7.5 ExperimentsandResults 288 7.5.1 ExperimentalOverview 288 7.5.2 ExpectedSystemPerformance 288 7.5.3 DataCollection 291 7.5.4 AdaptiveFilteringoftheSignal 292 7.5.5 TargetDetectionbyCross-Correlation 295 7.5.6 Long-IntegrationTime 296 7.5.7 UseofDecimationtoImproveEfficiency 299 7.5.8 AnFMCW-LikeApproach 301 7.5.9 ConstantFalseAlarmRate(CFAR)Detection 303 7.5.10 DirectionFinding 304 7.5.11 Plot-to-PlotAssociation 304 7.5.12 TargetStateEstimation 306 7.5.13 Plot-to-TargetAssociation(MultipleIlluminatorCase) 306 7.5.14 VerificationofSystemPerformance 308 7.6 SummaryandConclusions 309 Abbreviations 309 Variables 310 References 311 JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= • CONTENTS ix 8 AmbiguityFunctionCorrectioninPassiveRadar:DTV-TSignal 315 MikhailCherniakov 8.1 Introduction 315 8.2 DTV-TSignalSpecification 317 8.2.1 ScatteredPilotCarrier 318 8.2.2 ContinuousPilotCarrier 318 8.2.3 TransportParameterSignallingCarrier 319 8.2.4 GuardIntervals 320 8.3 DTV-TSignalAmbiguityFunction 320 8.3.1 TheDTV-TSignalModel 321 8.3.2 AFofDTV-TSignalRandomComponents 322 8.4 ImpactofDTV-TSignalDeterministicComponentsontheSignal AmbiguityFunction 322 8.4.1 AutocorrelationFunction(ω =0) 324 d 8.4.2 ComplexEnvelopeSpectrum(τ =0) 324 8.4.3 AmbiguityFunctionoftheDTV-TSignal 325 8.4.4 ExperimentalConfirmationoftheModellingResults 325 8.5 MismatchedSignalProcessing 327 8.5.1 ReceiverStricture 327 8.5.2 SignalPre-processingintheReceiver 328 8.5.3 PilotCarrierEqualization 330 8.5.4 PilotCarrierFiltering 332 8.6 Summary 335 Abbreviations 336 Variables 336 References 337 9 PassiveBistaticSARwithGNSSTransmitters 339 MikhailCherniakovandTaoZeng 9.1 GlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems 340 9.2 PowerBudgetAnalysis 343 9.3 AnalysisoftheSignal-to-InterferenceRatio 345 9.3.1 SIRattheAntennaOutput 345 9.3.2 AnalysisoftheSIRImprovementFactor 345 9.3.3 SimulationResults 351 9.4 ResultsDiscussion 354 9.5 ExperimentalStudyoftheSS-BSAR 354 9.6 Summary 358 Abbreviations 359 Variables 359 References 360 10 IonosphericStudies 363 JohnD.Sahr 10.1 Introduction 363 JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= • x CONTENTS 10.2 TheIonosphereandUpperAtmosphere 365 10.2.1 GrossStructureoftheIonosphere 366 10.2.2 IonosphericModels 370 10.2.3 FineStructure,Field-AlignedDensityIrregularities 370 10.2.4 RadioInteractionwiththeIonosphere 373 10.3 Bistatic,PassiveRadarStudies 378 10.3.1 BistaticRadarObservationsoftheIonosphere 378 10.3.2 TheManastashRidgeRadar 378 10.4 TrendsforIonosphericResearch 383 Abbreviations 383 Variables 384 Acknowledgements 385 References 385 Index 389 JWBK232-FM JWBK232-Cherniakov January3,2008 10:12 CharCount= List of Contributors MikhailCherniakov TaoZeng SchoolofEngineering,EECE, DepartmentofElectronicEngineering, UniversityofBirmingham, BeijingInstituteofTechnology, Edgbaston, Beijing100081,PRChina BirminghamB152TT,UK Email:[email protected] Email:[email protected] Phone:+861068940193 Phone:+44(0)1214144286 Fax:+861068911962 Fax:+44(0)1214144291 HughGriffiths MarcoD’Errico DefenceCollegeofManagementand DipartimentodiIngegneriaAerospazialee Technology Meccanica, CranfieldUniversity, SecondaUniversita` diNapoli Shrivenham ViaRoma29,81031Aversa SwindonSN68LA,UK (CE),Italy Email:h.griffiths@cranfield.ac.uk Email:[email protected] Phone:01793785436 Phone:+390815010223 Fax:01793782546 Fax:+390815010285 JohnSahr GerhardKrieger DepartmentofElectricalEngineering, MicrowavesandRadarInstitute(HR), UniversityofWashington, GermanAerospaceCenter(DLR), PaulAllenCenter–RoomAE100R, 82230Wessling/Oberpfaffenhofen, Seattle,WA98195-2500,USA Germany Email:[email protected] Email:[email protected] Phone:2066854816 Tel:+498153283054 Fax:2065433842 Fax:+498153281135 AntonioMoccia HubertCantalloube DipartimentodiIngegneriaAerospaziale, OneraDemr, Universita` degliStudidiNapoli ChemindelaHunie`re, “FedericoII”, 91761Palaiseau,France P.leTecchio80,80125Napoli,Italy Email:[email protected] Email:[email protected] Phone:+33(0)69936232 Phone:+390817682158 Fax:+33(0)69936269 Fax:+390817682160 xi